Neuroplasticity

There is a lot of buzzy talk about neuroplasticity on podcasts and in social media. It’s sometimes described as the brain’s “superpower” to change itself, giving one the ability to overcome addiction, depression and anxiety, and a host of other challenges. Although I think neuroplasticity is amazing when you really think about it, I don’t think claims in social media are supported by the data.

Put simply, neuroplasticity is the ability of the nervous system (especially the brain) to adapt to internal or external stimulation to improve future behavior. It does this through modifying its structure, function, or connections (see Mateos-Aparicio & Rodríguez-Moreno, 2019). Neuroplasticity underlies all adaptive behaviors, including and especially learning and memory. Any time you learn something new, you’ve experienced neuroplasticity.

Below are some well-validated resources for learning more about neuroplasticity–what it is and what it isn’t. I hope to update this list with new evidence as the field moves forward.

Neuroplasticity References

Bhandari, A., Lissemore, J. I., Rajji, T. K., Mulsant, B. H., Cash, R. F. H., Noda, Y., Zomorrodi, R., Karp, J. F., Lenze, E. J., Reynolds, C. F., Daskalakis, Z. J., & Blumberger, D. M. (2018). Assessment of neuroplasticity in late-life depression with transcranial magnetic stimulation. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 105, 63–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2018.08.022

Bondi, C. O., Klitsch, K. C., Leary, J. B., & Kline, A. E. (2014). Environmental Enrichment as a Viable Neurorehabilitation Strategy for Experimental Traumatic Brain Injury. Journal of Neurotrauma, 31(10), 873–888. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2014.3328

Bussalb, A., Congedo, M., Barthélemy, Q., Ojeda, D., Acquaviva, E., Delorme, R., & Mayaud, L. (2019). Clinical and Experimental Factors Influencing the Efficacy of Neurofeedback in ADHD: A Meta-Analysis. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 10. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00035

Campos da Paz, V. K., Garcia, A., Campos da Paz Neto, A., & Tomaz, C. (2018). SMR Neurofeedback Training Facilitates Working Memory Performance in Healthy Older Adults: A Behavioral and EEG Study. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 12. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnbeh.2018.00321

Clemenson, G. D., Deng, W., & Gage, F. H. (2015). Environmental enrichment and neurogenesis: From mice to humans. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 4, 56–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2015.02.005

Cotman, C. W., & Berchtold, N. C. (2002). Exercise: A behavioral intervention to enhance brain health and plasticity. Trends in Neurosciences, 25(6), 295–301. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-2236(02)02143-4

Cruz-Topete, D., & Cidlowski, J. A. (2018). Glucocorticoids: Molecular Mechanisms of Action. In C. Riccardi, F. Levi-Schaffer, & E. Tiligada (Eds.), Immunopharmacology and Inflammation (pp. 249–266). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77658-3_11

de la Tremblaye, P. B., Cheng, J. P., Bondi, C. O., & Kline, A. E. (2019). Environmental enrichment, alone or in combination with various pharmacotherapies, confers marked benefits after traumatic brain injury. Neuropharmacology, 145, 13–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2018.02.032

Dudek, E., & Dodell-Feder, D. (2021). The efficacy of real-time functional magnetic resonance imaging neurofeedback for psychiatric illness: A meta-analysis of brain and behavioral outcomes. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 121, 291–306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.12.020

Duque, A., & Spector, R. (2019). A balanced evaluation of the evidence for adult neurogenesis in humans: Implication for neuropsychiatric disorders. Brain Structure and Function, 224(7), 2281–2295. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00429-019-01917-6

Engineer, N. D., Percaccio, C. R., Pandya, P. K., Moucha, R., Rathbun, D. L., & Kilgard, M. P. (2004). Environmental Enrichment Improves Response Strength, Threshold, Selectivity, and Latency of Auditory Cortex Neurons. Journal of Neurophysiology, 92(1), 73–82. https://doi.org/10.1152/jn.00059.2004

Fan, Y., Liu, Z., Weinstein, P. R., Fike, J. R., & Liu, J. (2007). Environmental enrichment enhances neurogenesis and improves functional outcome after cranial irradiation. European Journal of Neuroscience, 25(1), 38–46. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-9568.2006.05269.x

Farhani, F., Shahrbanian, S., Auais, M., Hekmatikar, A. H. A., & Suzuki, K. (2022). Effects of Aerobic Training on Brain Plasticity in Patients with Mild Cognitive Impairment: A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials. Brain Sciences, 12(6), Article 6. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci12060732

Flor, H. (2003). Remapping somatosensory cortex after injury. Advances in Neurology, 93, 195–204.

Gault, N., & Szele, F. G. (2021). Immunohistochemical evidence for adult human neurogenesis in health and disease. WIREs Mechanisms of Disease, 13(6), e1526. https://doi.org/10.1002/wsbm.1526

Golia, M. T., Poggini, S., Alboni, S., Garofalo, S., Ciano Albanese, N., Viglione, A., Ajmone-Cat, M. A., St-Pierre, A., Brunello, N., Limatola, C., Branchi, I., & Maggi, L. (2019). Interplay between inflammation and neural plasticity: Both immune activation and suppression impair LTP and BDNF expression. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 81, 484–494. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2019.07.003

Jamil, A., Batsikadze, G., Kuo, H.-I., Labruna, L., Hasan, A., Paulus, W., & Nitsche, M. A. (2017). Systematic evaluation of the impact of stimulation intensity on neuroplastic after-effects induced by transcranial direct current stimulation. The Journal of Physiology, 595(4), 1273–1288. https://doi.org/10.1113/JP272738

Jung, J., & Lambon Ralph, M. A. (2021). The immediate impact of transcranial magnetic stimulation on brain structure: Short-term neuroplasticity following one session of cTBS. NeuroImage, 240, 118375. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.118375

Kempermann, G., Gage, F. H., Aigner, L., Song, H., Curtis, M., Thuret, S., Kuhn, H. G., Jessberger, S., Frankland, P. W., Cameron, H. A., Gould, E., Hen, R., Abrous, D. N., Toni, N., Schinder, A. F., Zhao, X., Lucassen, P. J., & Frisén, J. (2018). Human adult neurogenesis: Evidence and remaining questions. Cell Stem Cell, 23(1), 25–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.stem.2018.04.004

Kimura, I., Noyama, H., Onagawa, R., Takemi, M., Osu, R., & Kawahara, J. (2023). Efficacy of neurofeedback training for improving attentional performance in healthy adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis (p. 2023.03.19.533384). bioRxiv. https://doi.org/10.1101/2023.03.19.533384

Laborda-Sánchez, F., & Cansino, S. (2021). The Effects of Neurofeedback on Aging-Associated Cognitive Decline: A Systematic Review. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, 46(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10484-020-09497-6

Lecomte, G., & Juhel, J. (2011). The Effects of Neurofeedback Training on Memory Performance in Elderly Subjects. Psychology, 2(8), Article 8. https://doi.org/10.4236/psych.2011.28129

Macartney, E. L., Lagisz, M., & Nakagawa, S. (2022). The relative benefits of environmental enrichment on learning and memory are greater when stressed: A meta-analysis of interactions in rodents. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 135, 104554. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104554

Madalena, K. M., & Lerch, J. K. (2016). Glucocorticoids and nervous system plasticity. Neural Regeneration Research, 11(1), 37. https://doi.org/10.4103/1673-5374.175039

Mateos-Aparicio, P., & Rodríguez-Moreno, A. (2019). The Impact of Studying Brain Plasticity. Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience, 13, 66. https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2019.00066

Moffa, A. H., Martin, D., Alonzo, A., Bennabi, D., Blumberger, D. M., Benseñor, I. M., Daskalakis, Z., Fregni, F., Haffen, E., Lisanby, S. H., Padberg, F., Palm, U., Razza, L. B., Sampaio-Jr, B., Loo, C., & Brunoni, A. R. (2020). Efficacy and acceptability of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) for major depressive disorder: An individual patient data meta-analysis. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 99, 109836. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnpbp.2019.109836

Moreno-Jiménez, E. P., Terreros-Roncal, J., Flor-García, M., Rábano, A., & Llorens-Martín, M. (2021). Evidences for Adult Hippocampal Neurogenesis in Humans. Journal of Neuroscience, 41(12), 2541–2553. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0675-20.2020

Nano, P. R., & Bhaduri, A. (2022). Mounting evidence suggests human adult neurogenesis is unlikely. Neuron, 110(3), 353–355. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2022.01.004

Papo, D. (2019). Neurofeedback: Principles, appraisal, and outstanding issues. European Journal of Neuroscience, 49(11), 1454–1469. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejn.14312

Park, D. C., & Bischof, G. N. (2013). The aging mind: Neuroplasticity in response to cognitive training. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 15(1), 109–119. https://doi.org/10.31887/DCNS.2013.15.1/dpark

Park, D. C., & Reuter-Lorenz, P. (2009). The adaptive brain: Aging and neurocognitive scaffolding. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 173–196. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093656

Radabaugh, H. L., Carlson, L. J., O’Neil, D. A., LaPorte, M. J., Monaco, C. M., Cheng, J. P., de la Tremblaye, P. B., Lajud, N., Bondi, C. O., & Kline, A. E. (2016). Abbreviated environmental enrichment confers neurobehavioral, cognitive, and histological benefits in brain-injured female rats. Experimental Neurology, 286, 61–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.expneurol.2016.09.015

Razza, L. B., De Smet, S., Moffa, A., Sudbrack-Oliveira, P., Vanderhasselt, M.-A., & Brunoni, A. R. (2021). Follow-up effects of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) for the major depressive episode: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychiatry Research, 302, 114024. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2021.114024

Salvanes, A. G. V., Moberg, O., Ebbesson, L. O. E., Nilsen, T. O., Jensen, K. H., & Braithwaite, V. A. (2013). Environmental enrichment promotes neural plasticity and cognitive ability in fish. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 280(1767), 20131331. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2013.1331

Sasmita, A. O., Kuruvilla, J., & Ling, A. P. K. (2018). Harnessing neuroplasticity: Modern approaches and clinical future. International Journal of Neuroscience, 128(11), 1061–1077. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207454.2018.1466781

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Snyder, J. S., Radik, R., Wojtowicz, J. M., & Cameron, H. A. (2009). Anatomical gradients of adult neurogenesis and activity: Young neurons in the ventral dentate gyrus are activated by water maze training. Hippocampus, 19(4), 360–370. https://doi.org/10.1002/hipo.20525

Stark, C. E. L., Clemenson, G. D., Aluru, U., Hatamian, N., & Stark, S. M. (2021). Playing Minecraft Improves Hippocampal-Associated Memory for Details in Middle Aged Adults. Frontiers in Sports and Active Living, 3. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fspor.2021.685286

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Wang, J., Luo, H., Schülke, R., Geng, X., Sahakian, B. J., & Wang, S. (2021). Is transcranial direct current stimulation, alone or in combination with antidepressant medications or psychotherapies, effective in treating major depressive disorder? A systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Medicine, 19(1), 319. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-021-02181-4

Yang, Y.-W., Pan, W.-X., & Xie, Q. (2020). Combined effect of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation and physical exercise on cortical plasticity. Neural Regeneration Research, 15(11), 1986. https://doi.org/10.4103/1673-5374.282239

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Zhang, R., Lam, C. L. M., Peng, X., Zhang, D., Zhang, C., Huang, R., & Lee, T. M. C. (2021). Efficacy and acceptability of transcranial direct current stimulation for treating depression: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 126, 481–490. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.03.026